Chapter: Understanding Rhetoric - The Art of Persuasion

Before we dive into the specific appeals, it's essential to understand that all communication happens within a rhetorical situation—the context or set of circumstances in which a text is created and received. Whenever anyone communicates, they're responding to a specific situation that influences what they say and how they say it.

The rhetorical situation consists of several key elements:

Author/Speaker

The author is the person or organization creating the message. To understand a text fully, consider:

• What kind of experience or authority does the author have with this subject?
• What values does the author hold?
• What is the author's background and perspective?
• How invested is the author in this topic?

Example: If you're reading an article about climate change written by a climate scientist versus one written by a political blogger, the author's expertise and perspective will shape the argument differently.

Audience

The audience is the person or group the author is trying to reach and influence. Understanding the audience helps us see why an author makes certain choices. Consider:

• Who is the author addressing?
• What is the demographic of the intended audience (age, gender, education level, political beliefs, etc.)?
• What are the backgrounds, values, and interests of the intended audience?
• How open is this audience to the author? Are they likely to agree or disagree?
• In what context is the audience receiving this message?

Example: A politician giving an inaugural address knows that their base of supporters is watching, but they may also try to reach out to those who didn't vote for them. The speech must navigate these different audience expectations.

Purpose

The purpose is what the author hopes to achieve. Authors might aim to:

• Inform readers about something
• Convince readers to accept a particular viewpoint
• Inspire readers to take action
• Entertain or move readers emotionally
• Define or clarify an issue

Ask yourself: Why did the author decide to communicate about this topic? What does the author want from the audience?

Context/Setting

Nothing happens in a vacuum. Every text is created in a specific time and place that affects its meaning:

• When was this created? What was happening at that time?
• Was there a specific event that prompted this text?
• What debates or conversations was this text joining?
• Where was this published, and what does that tell us?

Example: An opinion piece about face masks published in March 2020 (early pandemic) would have a very different context than one published in March 2023.

Text/Medium

The format or medium of the text also matters:

• Is this a written essay, speech, video, social media post, advertisement, or something else?
• What does this particular medium allow the author to do?
• What limitations does it have?
• Why might the author have chosen this format?

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To be persuasive, authors must engage their audiences in multiple ways. Aristotle identified three primary modes of persuasion, which we still use today. These appeals work together—a strong argument typically balances all three.

Ethos (Greek for "character") refers to the author's credibility and trustworthiness. When you use ethos, you're convincing your audience that you're someone worth listening to—that you're knowledgeable, fair-minded, and have good character.

Two Dimensions of Ethos

1. Credibility through expertise: Do you have the knowledge, education, or experience to speak authoritatively on this subject?

2. Trustworthy character: Are you honest, fair, and genuinely concerned with your audience's best interests?

How Authors Build Ethos

Authors establish ethos by:

• Demonstrating their credentials, education, or relevant experience
• Showing thorough knowledge of the subject through clear explanations
• Being fair and honest—acknowledging opposing viewpoints
• Using credible, current sources to support their claims
• Writing clearly and correctly (proper grammar, careful proofreading)
• Appearing even-handed rather than overly emotional or biased
• Connecting to the values their audience holds dear

Example 1: A doctor writing about vaccine safety will mention their medical degree and years of practice. This builds credibility based on expertise.

Example 2: A student writing about the challenges of balancing work and school might share their own experience working 30 hours a week while taking a full course load. This builds credibility based on firsthand experience.

Example 3: In a research paper, carefully citing authoritative sources and explaining your research process builds ethos by showing you've done your homework.

Fallacious (Faulty) Ethos

Not all appeals to ethos are valid. Watch out for:

• False authority: When someone claims expertise they don't have or when expertise in one area is used to claim authority in an unrelated area (a famous actor promoting a medication)
• Ad hominem attacks: Attacking a person's character rather than addressing their argument ("You can't trust what she says about education—she never graduated from college!")
• Guilt by association: Dismissing an argument because of who else supports it

Questions to Ask About Ethos

When analyzing a text:

• Does the author come across as knowledgeable and reliable?
• What credentials or experience does the author have?
• Does the author explain concepts thoroughly?
• Does the author address counterarguments fairly?
• Where was this published, and what does that suggest about credibility?
• Does the author use credible sources?
• Is the tone balanced and reasonable, or does it seem manipulative?

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Pathos (Greek for "suffering" or "experience") refers to appeals to the audience's emotions. When you use pathos, you're trying to make your audience feel something—anger, sympathy, joy, fear, pride—that will make them more receptive to your argument.

Why Pathos Matters

Humans aren't purely rational beings. Our emotions influence our decisions, sometimes more than logic does. Making your audience care emotionally about your topic is crucial—if they don't care, they won't engage with your argument, no matter how logical it is.

How Authors Use Pathos

Authors appeal to emotions by:

• Telling personal stories or anecdotes that readers can relate to
• Using vivid, sensory descriptions that help readers imagine scenes or feel present
• Including emotionally powerful images or videos
• Using language that carries emotional weight
• Presenting scenarios that evoke specific emotions (fear, hope, anger, compassion)
• Sharing testimonials from real people affected by an issue
• Using humor to create connection or make a point memorable

Example 1: The ASPCA commercials featuring sad-looking animals and Sarah McLachlan's "In the Arms of an Angel" use pathos to evoke sympathy and motivate donations. (Note: Even the singer herself admitted these commercials are so emotionally intense that she changes the channel!)

Example 2: In arguing for stronger drunk driving laws, a speaker might share the story of a family who lost a child to a drunk driver. The personal narrative creates an emotional connection that statistics alone might not achieve.

Example 3: A college recruiter might describe students laughing together at campus events, studying in beautiful libraries, and celebrating at graduation to evoke feelings of excitement and belonging.

Pathetic Appeals and Rhetorical Strategies

Pathos can involve:

• Expressive descriptions of people, places, or events
• Vivid imagery that makes readers feel like they're seeing or experiencing something
• Emotion-laden vocabulary (words like "devastating," "heartwarming," "outrageous")
• Personal narratives that create empathy or connection
• Hypothetical scenarios that ask readers to imagine themselves in a situation

Fallacious (Faulty) Pathos

Emotional appeals can be manipulative if used excessively or dishonestly:

• Emotional manipulation: Using fear or pity to distract from weak logic
• Argument by emotive language: Using emotionally charged words that aren't supported by evidence
• Scare tactics: Creating unreasonable fear to push an agenda
• Sentimental appeals: Relying so heavily on emotion that reason disappears

The Balance

Effective arguments use pathos to make the audience care, but they don't rely on emotion alone. Pathos should work alongside logos (logic) and ethos (credibility) to create a well-rounded argument.

Questions to Ask About Pathos

When analyzing a text:

• What emotions is the author trying to evoke?
• How does the author create these emotional responses?
• Are there personal stories or anecdotes? What effect do they have?
• What kind of language does the author use—is it emotionally charged?
• Are there images or other visual elements that appeal to emotions?
• Is the emotional appeal fair and honest, or does it feel manipulative?
• Does the emotional appeal enhance the argument or replace logical reasoning?

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Logos (Greek for "word" or "reason") refers to the logical content of an argument—the facts, evidence, and reasoning that support a claim. When you use logos, you're appealing to your audience's rationality and common sense.

Why Logos Matters

While emotions and credibility matter, audiences also need solid reasons to accept your argument. Logos provides the intellectual foundation that makes an argument convincing and defensible.

How Authors Use Logos

Authors appeal to logic by:

• Providing facts, statistics, and data from credible sources
• Using examples and evidence to support claims
• Organizing information clearly and coherently
• Following logical patterns of reasoning
• Addressing counterarguments and explaining why they're flawed
• Using definitions to clarify terms
• Making valid comparisons
• Establishing cause-and-effect relationships

Logical Reasoning Strategies

Strong logical appeals often use:

Deductive reasoning: Starting with a general principle and applying it to a specific case

• Example: "All students who complete their homework improve their grades. You completed all your homework. Therefore, your grades should improve."

Inductive reasoning: Using specific examples to reach a general conclusion

• Example: "Student A improved after completing homework. Student B improved after completing homework. Student C improved after completing homework. Therefore, completing homework helps students improve."

Cause-and-effect thinking: Arguing that one thing leads to another

• Example: "Installing speed bumps in the neighborhood (cause) has reduced speeding incidents by 40% (effect)."

Comparison: Showing how two things are similar to support a point

• Example: "Just as we require driver's licenses to ensure public safety on roads, we should require certification for drone operators to ensure safety in airspace."

Exemplification: Using multiple examples to support a point

Coherent organization: Presenting ideas in a logical order without contradictions

What Counts as Evidence?

Strong logos requires solid evidence:

• Statistics and data from reputable sources
• Expert testimony from qualified authorities
• Scientific studies that have been peer-reviewed
• Historical examples that are relevant and accurately presented
• Specific facts that can be verified

Fallacious (Faulty) Logos

Not all reasoning is sound. Watch for these logical fallacies:

Hasty generalization: Drawing a broad conclusion from insufficient evidence

• Example: "My roommate from California is rude, so people from California must be rude."

False dilemma (either/or): Presenting only two options when more exist

• Example: "Either we ban all social media, or our democracy will collapse."

Slippery slope: Assuming one action will inevitably lead to extreme consequences

• Example: "If we allow students to redo one assignment, soon they'll expect to redo everything and learning will become meaningless."

False cause: Assuming that because one thing happened before another, it caused it

• Example: "I wore my lucky socks and we won the game, so my socks caused the victory."

Cherry-picking: Selecting only evidence that supports your view while ignoring contrary evidence

Red herring: Bringing up an irrelevant point to distract from the real issue

Straw man: Misrepresenting an opposing argument to make it easier to attack

Questions to Ask About Logos

When analyzing a text:

• What evidence does the author provide?
• Are the sources credible and current?
• Does the conclusion follow logically from the premises?
• Is the argument well-organized and easy to follow?
• Does the author address counterarguments?
• Are there any logical fallacies?
• Is there sufficient evidence to support the claims?
• Does the author use facts and data, or rely mainly on opinion?

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While not part of Aristotle's original three appeals, kairos is another crucial rhetorical concept. Kairos refers to the opportune moment—saying or doing the right thing at the right time in the right way.

Understanding Kairos

Kairos is about:

• Timeliness: Is this the right moment for this argument?
• Appropriateness: Does this message fit this particular context?
• Urgency: Does the situation demand immediate attention?
• Relevance: Does this issue matter to the audience right now?

Think about everyday examples:

• Asking your parents for a favor right after you've done something they asked you to do (good kairos)
• Asking your boss for a raise the day after the company announced budget cuts (poor kairos)
• A politician giving a speech about unity right after a divisive election (strategic kairos)

Kairos in Writing

In writing, kairos involves:

• When you make your main point: Do you lead with your thesis, or build up to it?
• When you present your strongest evidence: Do you start strong, end strong, or both?
• Cultural moment: Is your topic relevant right now, or is it outdated?
• Publication timing: When and where you publish matters

Example: An article about voting rights published just before an election has strong kairos—it's timely and relevant. The same article published two years after an election has weaker kairos.

Questions to Ask About Kairos

When analyzing a text:

• When was this created? Is the timing significant?
• Is the topic currently relevant, or has the moment passed?
• Where does the author place their thesis? Is this effective?
• When does the author present their strongest evidence?
• Does the author create a sense of urgency? How and why?
• Is this the right medium/format for this message at this time?

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The most effective arguments balance all the appeals. Think of them as three legs of a stool—remove one, and the argument becomes unstable.

A Balanced Argument:

• Ethos: Establishes that the author is credible and trustworthy
• Pathos: Makes the audience care about the issue emotionally
• Logos: Provides solid reasons and evidence
• Kairos: Delivers the message at the right time in the right way

What Happens When Appeals Are Missing:

If an argument lacks ethos: The audience won't trust the author, even if the logic is sound and the topic is emotionally compelling.

If an argument lacks pathos: The audience won't care enough to engage, even if the author is credible and the evidence is strong.

If an argument lacks logos: The argument will seem purely emotional or based only on the author's authority, without substance to back it up.

If an argument lacks kairos: The message might be well-crafted but ineffective because the timing or context is wrong.

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When you analyze a text rhetorically, you're examining how the author uses these appeals to achieve their purpose within a specific rhetorical situation.

A Process for Rhetorical Analysis

1. Identify the rhetorical situation

   • Who is the author? What's their background?
   • Who is the audience?
   • What is the purpose?
   • What is the context (when, where, why was this created)?
   • What is the medium/format?

2. Locate the appeals

   • Where does the author use ethos? How do they build credibility?
   • Where does the author use pathos? What emotions are evoked and how?
   • Where does the author use logos? What evidence and reasoning do they provide?
   • How does kairos factor in? Is the timing effective?

3. Evaluate effectiveness

   • Are the appeals appropriate for this audience and purpose?
   • Are they used ethically and honestly?
   • Do they work together to create a persuasive whole?
   • Are there any fallacies or weak spots?

4. Consider your own response

   • How do you respond to this text?
   • Which appeals work on you? Which don't?
   • What are your own biases and how might they affect your reading?

Sample Analysis

Let's look at a brief example: a college recruitment brochure.

Rhetorical Situation:

• Author: University admissions office
• Audience: High school students and their parents
• Purpose: To persuade students to apply and attend
• Context: Sent to students who requested information
• Medium: Glossy printed brochure with photos

Appeals:

• Ethos: Lists faculty credentials, accreditation, graduation rates, and alumni success stories to establish the institution's credibility
• Pathos: Shows photos of diverse, happy students in beautiful campus settings; includes a student testimonial about finding belonging
• Logos: Provides statistics on job placement rates, average starting salaries, and scholarship availability
• Kairos: Mailed to arrive in students' junior or senior year when they're actively making college decisions

Effectiveness: The brochure balances all appeals and targets its audience strategically. However, a critical reader might note that it cherry-picks statistics and may not address potential concerns like cost or class sizes.

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Activity 1: Identifying the Rhetorical Situation (15 minutes)

Choose one of the following scenarios and identify all elements of the rhetorical situation:

1. A student writes an email to their professor asking for an extension on a paper
2. A city council member gives a speech proposing a new bike lane
3. A company creates an Instagram ad for a new product
4. A student writes an editorial for the campus newspaper about rising tuition

For your chosen scenario, identify:

• Author (and their background/perspective)
• Audience (and their likely values/concerns)
• Purpose
• Context/Setting
• Medium and why it matters

Activity 2: Scavenger Hunt for Appeals (20 minutes)

Find an advertisement (TV commercial, magazine ad, social media post, etc.) and analyze it:

1. What product/idea is being "sold"?
2. Where do you see ethos? How does the ad establish credibility?
3. Where do you see pathos? What emotions does it evoke and how?
4. Where do you see logos? What logical appeals or evidence does it provide?
5. How does kairos play a role? Why is this message timely or relevant?
6. Which appeal is strongest? Why do you think the creators made that choice?
7. Overall, how effective is this advertisement? Why?

Activity 3: Analyzing Apple's Advertising (30 minutes)

Watch these three Apple advertisements and analyze how each one uses different rhetorical appeals:

Example 1: "The new MacBook Pro" (emphasizes technical specifications) Example 2: "1984" Super Bowl commercial (the famous ad introducing Macintosh) Example 3: "How hard can it be?" (shows Mac being used in various creative and professional contexts)

For each ad:

• Which appeal (ethos, pathos, or logos) is primary?
• How does the ad use that appeal?
• Who is the target audience?
• How does kairos factor in (when was it released and why does that matter)?

Then consider: How might Apple use kairos in a new advertisement released today?

Activity 4: Fallacy Detective (15 minutes)

Identify the logical fallacy in each statement:

1. "If we let students use laptops in class, next they'll want to use them during tests, and eventually no one will learn anything."

2. "Everyone I know loves that restaurant, so it must be the best in town."

3. "We should definitely listen to this celebrity's views on climate change—they're very famous and successful."

4. "My opponent wants to cut funding for the school's sports programs. Clearly, they hate children and don't want them to be active and healthy."

5. "You can't trust Professor Martinez's research on education—she never finished her PhD."

Activity 5: Building Your Own Argument (30-45 minutes)

Choose a claim you want to argue for. It could be:

• Your school should/shouldn't require a first-year seminar course
• Social media does more harm than good (or vice versa)
• Your town should invest in public transportation
• Any topic relevant to your community or interests

Now build support for your argument by addressing each appeal:

Ethos: How will you establish your credibility on this topic? What experience or research can you reference?

Pathos: What story, image, or scenario might make your audience care emotionally?

Logos: What are three pieces of evidence (facts, statistics, examples) that support your claim?

Kairos: Why is this argument relevant and timely right now?

Then, write one paragraph that incorporates at least three of these appeals to support your claim.

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Understanding rhetorical appeals isn't just an academic exercise—it's a crucial life skill in our media-saturated world. Every day, you encounter hundreds of messages trying to persuade you: advertisements, news articles, social media posts, political speeches, and more.

Being rhetorically aware helps you:

• Recognize manipulation: When a politician uses fear-mongering or a company uses deceptive advertising, you can identify these tactics
• Evaluate credibility: You can assess whether a source is trustworthy or if someone is claiming authority they don't have
• Make better decisions: Understanding how appeals work helps you see through emotional manipulation and demand solid evidence
• Become a better citizen: You can engage more thoughtfully with political discourse and civic issues
• Be a smarter consumer: You won't be as easily swayed by marketing tactics

In 2023 and beyond, with the rise of social media, AI-generated content, and rapid information spread, rhetorical literacy is more important than ever. The word "rhetoric" appears in news coverage daily—often referring to political language that creates division. Understanding the true meaning of rhetoric empowers you to see through "empty rhetoric" and recognize substantive argumentation.

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Rhetoric is far more than "empty speech"—it's the foundation of effective communication. By understanding the rhetorical situation and the appeals of ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos, you become both a better communicator and a more critical consumer of information.

As you write in college and beyond, consider:

• Who is my audience, and what do they value?
• What is my purpose?
• When is the right moment for this message?
• How can I establish credibility?
• How can I make my audience care?
• What evidence do I need to be convincing?

Remember, the most powerful arguments balance all these elements. They come from credible sources, appeal to our emotions honestly, provide solid evidence, and arrive at the right moment. As you develop as a writer and thinker, you'll find yourself naturally considering these appeals—they'll become part of how you see and engage with the world.

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This chapter synthesizes and adapts material from the following openly licensed sources:

Eward-Mangione, Angela. "Rhetorical Appeals: An Overview." Understanding Literacy in Our Lives, edited by Julie Townsend, Normandale Community College, 2018. Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Gagich, Melanie, and Emilie Zickel. "Using Rhetorical Appeals." ENGL 1020 Research & Argumentative Writing, Middle Tennessee State University, 2020. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Gagich, Melanie, and Emilie Zickel. "Logical Fallacies." ENGL 1020 Research & Argumentative Writing, Middle Tennessee State University, 2020. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Jeffrey, Robin, and Emilie Zickel. "Understanding the Rhetorical Situation." ENGL 1020 Research & Argumentative Writing, Middle Tennessee State University, 2020. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Miller, Patricia Roberts. "Rhetoric is Just Empty Speech." Bad Ideas About Writing, edited by Cheryl E. Ball and Drew M. Loewe, West Virginia University, 2017. Licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0.

Palmer, Karen. "Fallacies." The Worry-Free Writer, 2019. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA.

Robinson, Michelle Bachelor, and Maria Jerskey, eds. Writing Guide with Handbook. OpenStax, Rice University, 2021. Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Sylvia, J.J., IV. "Rhetorical Analysis." Introduction to Communication and Media Studies, Fitchburg State University ROTEL Project, 2024. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Watts, Tracey, and Dorie LaRue. "Rhetorical Appeals: Logos, Pathos, and Ethos Defined." Rhetoric Matters: A Guide to Success in the First-Year Writing Class, adapted from Bruce, Yvonne, et al., LOUIS OER, 2022. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Zickel, Emilie, and Erica M. Stone. "Using Rhetorical Appeals." ENGL 1020 Research & Argumentative Writing, Middle Tennessee State University, 2020. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

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License for This Chapter

This chapter is a derivative work that synthesizes content from the sources listed above. It is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0), which allows you to share and adapt this material for non-commercial purposes as long as you provide appropriate attribution and distribute any adaptations under the same license.

Recommended Citation: "Understanding Rhetoric: The Art of Persuasion." Adapted from multiple sources by Joseph Selvaggio, 2026. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.